Global program against trafficking in human beings gpat

Research indicates organized crime, prostitution, massage parlors, and brothels are closely linked to the crime of human trafficking. Government corruption and transnational criminal organizations contribute significantly to this crime and financial profit is usually the primary motivation. The objective of this report is to examine the various elements of human trafficking including the recognized definition, the prevalence of human trafficking, the characteristics commonly associated with both victims and offenders, as well as information regarding the Modus Operandi M.

Various approaches to preventing the crime of human trafficking will be discussed. A major report published by the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNODC, Global Programme against Trafficking of Human Beings GPAT specifically defines trafficking in persons as: The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force, or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.

Exploitation includes, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others, or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude, or the removal of organs UNODC, , p.

The U. Further distinctions are made by the Government Accountability Office GAO which states it is not necessary to be physically transported across borders to be considered an exploited victim and that human trafficking violates labor and immigration laws and can include government corruption and organized crime , pp. With regard to prevalence, researchers generally agree there is no clear or accurate estimate of the extent of human trafficking.

In a government report, it was estimated there were , to , people trafficked internationally each year USDOJ, p. In , the U. Department of State report suggested there were at least Reasons for the lack of hard numbers vary. According to the Vera Institute of Justice , the shifting prevalence estimates to methodological issues within existing research on human trafficking and suggest greater attention is needed to ensure increased accuracy of estimates p. Newton, Mulcahy, and Martin found in large metropolitan areas, which are more likely to experience trafficking in persons than are other parts of the country, so few cases of trafficking are reported that respondents are reluctant to provide generalizations pertaining to the numbers involved p.

Another problem in estimating the prevalence of trafficking lies in convincing the public a problem and the seriousness of the phenomenon is not exaggerated.

Even among law enforcement officers it is estimated between 73 and 77 percent perceive human trafficking as rare or non-existent Northeastern University Institute on Race and Justice, , p. The same researchers also stated most of the officers holding this view have not taken proactive measures to investigate human trafficking thoroughly p.

Along the same lines of inquiry, Newton , p. It is clear more research is needed to obtain accurate and reliable estimates related to the prevalence of human trafficking. Victims We reviewed 10 articles in which authors included information relating to characteristics of victims of human trafficking.

Obtaining reliable information is proven to be as difficult as finding one agreed-upon definition, as mentioned above in the previous section. Reasons for this are varied. For instance, individuals who might be considered victims of trafficking are already in vulnerable positions and often fear the consequences of explaining their situations to authorities. S Department of State, , pp. Victims of trafficking are often treated as criminals by authorities: After being abducted in their countries of origin they may be arrested, detained, and charged in countries of destination for working illegally, frequently as prostitutes, and for having false documentation.

Leman and Janssens reviewed 62 court cases of human trafficking. They could, however, provide information on the characteristics of the individuals. In some cases, they were violently victimized and unable to escape. Most women then sought employment abroad through corrupt employment agencies. In many cases they were lured by being promised jobs and were given false promises in the form of high wages. Even with the problems in identifying persons who are victims of trafficking, there are still a few things we can say about individuals targeted for this crime.

Any person of any age can be a victim, though most are young women. More than half the victims lived in urban areas and had previously run away from home. Almost all were living in poverty prior to their human trafficking experiences. Human trafficking is also linked with immigrants, particularly those who are undocumented Gallagher and Holmes, p. Many victims are illegal migrants from Asia or Africa, brought to work in the UK and transported by unidentified persons.

Most of the victims claimed they knew what work they would be doing and were happy to be doing it. Some, however, reported they had been deceived or coerced into the work they were doing. Internet exploitation of children cases typically involve teens and younger children lured by adults attempting to exploit their sexual curiosity Lebov, , p. Offenders Our study reviewed eight articles pertaining to offender characteristics and factors associated with human trafficking.

The articles provided information on offender demographics and motivations from a global perspective. The following information is a synopsis of what we learned. Not only is human trafficking a difficult crime to detect, it is also challenging to determine who, exactly, the offenders are, as there are likely many people involved from recruiters in the country of origin, to transporters, and the receivers of trafficked humans in the destination country.

Trafficking can be defined in terms of dealing or trading in something illegal Merriam-Webster. In many cultures, prostitution is indeed illegal. So, is there a difference? Are there variances that set prostitution and human trafficking apart, or are they just different forms of the same industry? In order to answer this question, it is important to first. There is a new business spreading around the world, which is called trafficking. Trafficking is dealing or trading in something illegal like human trafficking.

This kind of business is considered illegal because it may harm human and abuse them. Human trafficking has many aspects such as trafficking by women, children and human body parts. It became common as organizations for many purposes like.

Human trafficking is the quickest increasing criminal industry currently in society and is a dark human behavior that has been going on since the beginning of history. The trafficking of human beings for forced slave labor and sexual exploitation is a horrendous crime that takes advantage of one throughout the illegal trading and forced labor of all types of people People trafficking forces millions of people going against their will and having to take part in prostitution, beg and complete hard.

Millions of people from around the globe have been captured and caught to undergo activities against their will mainly for the act of slavery or pleasure and prostitution. Although some of the countries that serve as destinations for transplant tourism may indeed benefit economically from these activities as well, one would expect the strong international condemnation and pressure by IOs and civil society organizations like the WMA and the TTS in the past decade to influence national policies.

Organ importing countries may also face conflicting incentives. On the one hand, because the negative effects of organ trade are not as tangible or clear as the effects of drug trafficking or 17 Studies of vendors in Pakistan and Egypt uncovered not only a deterioration in their health condition but also long-term financial disadvantages Naqvi, ; Budani, However, negative publicity and international reputational concerns underline the need to take action against transplant tourism.

Therefore: H1: Organ-exporting and organ-importing countries are more likely to introduce legal reforms aimed at curbing transplant tourism and organ trafficking. Domestic pressures. In some developed countries, insurance companies have been funding and promoting the practices of medical tourism in general. They may oppose stricter regulation of these practices as well as a ban on traveling abroad to undergo organ transplantations.

In destination countries, on the other hand, the private healthcare sector may have a vested interest in the continuation of illicit transplantations, therefore also opposing policy and legal reforms. H2: The greater the economic strength of the private healthcare sector, the less likely a government is to implement national laws against organ trafficking Domestic political institutions. Although there is no binding international legal agreement on transplant tourism, we would expect democracies to also have more respect for soft law arrangements than their non-democratic counterparts.

In addition, and given the illicit nature of organ trafficking, regardless of the regime type, a link between corruption levels and likelihood of introducing curbs on transplant tourism is expected. Civil society. Civil society organizations, and in particular epistemic communities of transplant surgeons and bioethicists, have been very instrumental in pushing for normative change in organ trafficking.

The medical community has been central in identifying the existence of the problem, in raising awareness of its negative consequences, and taking the leadership in the construction of a transnational advocacy network.

Links with human trafficking. There are significant conceptual disagreements and confusion among IOs, governments and civil society actors concerning the relationship between organ trafficking and trafficking in human beings for organ removal. For some, these are part of the same phenomenon and must thus be tackled jointly, under the same legal and institutional framework.

From this perspective, a new instrument dealing more specifically with organ trafficking is needed. Regardless of these conceptual disagreements, given the clear interconnection between the two issues, we would expect countries with stronger anti-trafficking policies to be more committed to the fight against organ trafficking and transplant tourism H6: The greater the interest in fighting human trafficking for sexual exploitation and labor trafficking, the more likely a government will be to take steps against organ trafficking.

Empirical Analysis The empirical analysis uses data from a sample of countries. More specifically, this variable takes a value of 1 if at least one of two reforms are introduced between and 1 national transplantation laws banning commercial transplantations at home and abroad are enacted or reformed in line with international documents, such as the WHO Guiding Principles, the WMA Principles and the DOI; 2 national laws on human trafficking that include trafficking for organ removal.

Most of these explanatory variables are measured for the year The variable Private health expenditure seeks to capture the economic strength of the healthcare private sector. It is measured as a percentage of GDP. To control for the potential effect of other overall economic conditions and opportunities for donors, I include the level of unemployment, measured as the share of the labor force that is without work but available for and seeking employment.

To test the effect of domestic political institutions, two independent variables are included, Democracy and Corruption Control. To operationalize democracy I use the Polity IV score, which ranges from 10 strongly democratic to strongly autocratic. Operationalizing the impact of civil society on policy outcomes is particularly challenging. To estimate the effect of the medical epistemic community, I use two indicators. First, Physicians density measures the number of doctors per 1, population.

Because data for this variable was not available for all countries in the sample for , the most recent available year was used. The variable Specialized Hospitals, in turn, measures the number of such establishments in each country per , population in the year Both variables were obtained from the Global Health Observatory of the World Health Organization WHO.

A preferable indicator would be the size of membership in the national transplantation associations but this data was not available at this time.

Finally, to explore the links between human trafficking and legal responses to organ trafficking, I use three different variables. Trafficking in and Trafficking out seek to capture the incidence of human trafficking flows into and from a specific country. Countries are rated in each of these areas using a scale of 1 to 5, where the highest value means full compliance with the minimum standards outlined in the UN Trafficking Protocol and the lowest value signals no compliance at all.

Results, which are presented in Table 1, suggest that organ-exporting countries are more likely than organ importing countries and than those not involved in organ trade to enact legal reforms aiming at curbing transplant tourism.

All things equal, the quality of democracy and corruption control seems to be associated with a greater probability that states will take steps to stop international organ trafficking. Domestic economic conditions also appear to influence the degree of commitment to the fight against organ trafficking.

Results indicate that the higher the level of unemployment, the less likely a country will be to introduce reforms in this direction. The coefficient of Private health expenditure, while having a negative sign in line with our theoretical expectations, does not reach acceptable levels of statistical significance.

The two variables included with the aim of capturing the strength of the medical community, Physicians and Specialized hospitals are not statistically significant either. For more details on the construction of this index for origin, transit and destination countries, see UNODC Trafficking in, for example, measures citations of destination countries in the reports of the organizations considered. If a country got 1 citation as a destination country, it was assigned a score of Very low 1.

Countries getting were coded as Low 2 , is Medium 3 , is High 4 and is Very High 5. Transnational civil society, and in particular, an international epistemic community of transplant surgeons, medical anthropologists, and bioethicists, have been central in the development of a normative and legal framework against organ trafficking. These experts have pushed for prohibition of these activities from two types of institutional platforms: international organizations such as the WHO, COE, and OSCE, and international and national professional associations.

They have been central in identifying the existence of the problem, in raising awareness of its negative consequences, and taking the leadership in the construction of a transnational advocacy network Ezeilo, In: Other Topics. Law enforcement, courts, and corrections are affected in different ways by cyber-crimes. Law enforcement faces issues with cyber-crime, such as privacy, confidentiality, determining the location the crime initiated, and locating the perpetrator s.

Courts face issues, such as loss of evidence and loop holes in laws. Correctional facilities face internal cyber-crimes and overcrowding as a result of cyber-crimes.

The following information will discuss the issues within each division of the criminal justice system and provide remedy recommendations. The information will conclude with an analysis of global crime. Cyber-crime and Law Enforcement Cyber crime has made a major impact on the law enforcement it has not only given them more things to have to worry about but also has helped them to solve and organize crime better.

The internet has changed so many things about this world, from how we purchase things, how we keep in touch with one another, and of course how some can conduct crime. A Hacker Some people would say organized crime is the best thing to happen to neighborhoods which law enforcement will not come into.

No matter what side of the fence a person falls on, some part of what they believe will be correct, and part will not. During the course of this paper, the author will look at organized crime, identify the problems presented and the various relationships established by organized crime, and describe the legal limitations associated with combating organized crime, including a critique of major federal laws and strategies that support this effort.

Finally, the author will suggest a realistic solution to control organized crime by discussing and evaluating the effectiveness of organized crime prosecutions. Transnational organized crime rears its ugly head in many different forms, ranging from the trafficking of drugs and people to illegal arms. This is often accomplished by using unsuspecting Plan of Action to Combat Human Trafficking Abstract Human trafficking is a crime that without the proper direction will cost the human being the right to have freedom.

Every person has the right to choose and not fall into being victimized by someone who is in the pursuit of indentured servitude. This billion-dollar industry is aiding the criminal acts such as drug trafficking and production, sexual assault, sexual rape male or female , and most of all abuse and neglect of all the victims involved.

Most people want to believe that human trafficking is non-existent and only happens to victims who are participating in any illegal enterprise. The ugly truth is that most people who have been trafficked did not know the ramifications of the decisions that they were making because of the promises that were falsely given to them by their captives smugglers.

The need for a plan of action to combat human trafficking is one that must not be taken lightly. If it were as simple as people think, then it would have never been an issue to begin with. Plan of Action to Combat Human Trafficking The discussion of human trafficking is one that has taken place throughout the time that man has been in civilized existence.

These victims are slaves and live in servitude until they break free or die in some instances. Many people would like to believe that this is something that