Riqueza de especies pdf

Ceballos eds. Bat diversity and abundance as indicators of disturbance in Neotropical rainforest. The importance of various habitat types to bats Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae in Lithuania during the summer period. Acta Zoologica Lituanica Milne, D. Armstrong, A. Fisher, T. Flores and R. A comparison of three survey methods for collecting bat echolocation calls and species accumulation rates from nightly Anabat recordings.

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Zar, J. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice Hall. Bat captures, sampling effort and observed and estimated species richness with three capture methods in Dzibichaltun National Park, Yucatan, Mexico. Proportion of bat trophic guilds recorded with each capture method. We used different levels of the spatial understory and subcanopy height, site and vegetation type and temporal sampling period within a night, sampling night and season dimensions. Our results indicate that the species composition of bat assemblages is dynamic in space and time, thus a proper assessment of diversity requires the inclusion of a variety of spatial and temporal scales in sampling designs.

Key words. Spatially, bat species richness and diversity are associated with landscape heterogeneity. Greater diversity occurs in sites with mosaics of different types of vegetation or where there are patches of vegetation with a well developed canopy. Each vertical stratum of vegetation has its own characteristics that allow it to be used by different groups of species Bradshaw, At fine scales, a vertical stratification pattern sensu Moffett, has been reported for some groups or guilds of bats.

For Pteropodid bats greater diversity has been recorded in the canopy since these bats find more food and perching sites in the upper parts of the vegetation Hodgkison et al. Insectivorous species tend to be found above the canopy or in the upper canopy; fruit, pollen and nectar feeding species as well as carnivorous species frequent the middle and lower part of the canopy, and the hematophagous species use the lower canopy, reflecting how each trophic guild finds specific resources Bernard, Temporally, bat species richness and diversity are associated with climate conditions that favor productivity.

For example, species that depend on resources that vary over time may abandon a given site during seasons or years of low availability Aguirre et al.

At fine scales variation in nocturnal activity patterns have been reported between some bat species and trophic guilds as a way to partition foraging time and minimize ecological overlap Mancina et al.

Due to this range of responses, it is necessary to use multiscale approaches that allow for the comparison of the particular contribution of each scale and to identify which are having the greatest effect on bat species richness, from both spatial and temporal perspectives. The partitioning of diversity has been proposed for the analysis of species diversity in a landscape, and is useful because it allows for the assessment of the relative contributions of each level of diversity to total species diversity.

Using additive partitioning, we analyzed which scales in the spatial and temporal dimensions contribute most to explaining total phyllostomid bat species richness in Yucatan, Mexico. So, although the same groups of species may be present in a given season, they may have different foraging times at night and different abundances between seasons. The climate of the deciduous tropical forest DTF is dry and warm, with rain in the summer total annual precipitation: - mm and the mean annual temperature is This forest is comprised of trees that are 6 to 10 m in height, with a d.

During the dry season December — May sporadic cold fronts from the north nortes are the main source of precipitation Duch, ; Barber et al. Bat capture Bats were sampled between October and August Each of six sites were sampled on a total of 12 nights six nights per season , avoiding sampling on consecutive nights at the same location, for a total of 18 nights per season in each type of forest, and a total of 36 nights in each forest.

No sampling was done around the full moon Morrison, , rainy or windy nights since these conditions can affect bat activity. To capture bats, three mist nets were set at ground level to understory height, and three were hung at 6 or 8 m above the ground depending on the type of forest undercanopy or midcanopy ; all nets were 12 m long by 2.

Nets were opened for 6 h after sunset, and were checked every 30 min. Statistical Analyses To assess bat inventory completeness, we estimated maximum species richness S max for each type of forest and season using Chao estimators Chao1 with individual-based abundance data and Chao2 using only species presence-absence data.

These were calculated using the EstimateS program, version 7. In this study, analyses of additive partitioning of bat species richness were performed for both the spatial and temporal dimensions, with three scales on each dimension Figure 2. In the dry season we caught bats, and in the rainy season we caught bats, with 13 species common to both seasons.

Additive Partitioning Additive partitioning analysis revealed differences in phyllostomid richness across scales in both the spatial and temporal dimensions.

Initially, it was only applied to spatial analysis Wagner et al. Here we applied this method for a phyllostomid bat assemblage and found that species richness varies between the spatial and temporal scales analyzed, demonstrating that although there is a unique total number of species in both dimensions, the assemblage is dynamic because species composition varies in space and time.

The notable contribution of the fine spatial scale within-height diversity may result from the high bat richness in understory mist nets, a result of forest type per se or of the ecological requirements of phyllostomids.

The relatively low height of the two different types of forest studied, mean 3. Beta diversity at different scales was significantly different from expected values despite making a small contribution to total diversity. However, because the differences between observed and expected values are minimal, mainly in STF and for between-vegetation-type diversity, we must consider these results with caution as regards the Type I error Feinsinger, Between-heights diversity was important because, although subcanopy mist nets do not add new species to those recorded in understory mist nets, bats captured in the subcanopy mist nets notably contribute to the total abundance of some species, such as A.

The significance of between-site diversity in both vegetation types reflects the importance of sampling several sites rather than a single site because some species limit their activity to sites that are close to their daytime roosts Kalko et al. So, to get a satisfactory representation of the bat assemblage in a specific habitat, it is very important to include between- site variability Godoy et al.

This could be due to the characteristics of the Yucatan Peninsula, to the vegetation types included in this study, and to the biology of bats. The Yucatan Peninsula is a calcareous platform that is an average of ten meters above sea level with just one small but notable change in topography—the Ticul hills or Cordon Puuc—in the center, which reaches an elevation of m a. The Peninsula has karst features such as caves and cenotes, which are water-filled sinkholes formed by the dissolution of limestone.

So, the landscape is relatively flat, constant, and there is little environmental variation. There is a gradient in precipitation from the northeast to the southeast of the peninsula Barber et al. This study included only forested sites in the north and center of the Peninsula, so it is possible that the distance between the sites and their structural characteristics are not great enough to permit a high species turnover.

This is because of the high vagility of bats, which allows them to fly long distances in a single night, especially across relatively homogeneous landscapes Pineda et al. Temporal dimension As hypothesized, species turnover was more important than alpha diversity in explaining total species richness, but only the variation between nights during the rainy season was significantly higher than expected by chance.

The significant difference in diversity between nights reflects the importance of sampling more than one night at each site to increase the completeness of the bat inventory. This bias could result in misleading conclusions about bat assemblages. This is particularly important during the rainy season, when variation in rainfall between nights can also lead to differences in the number of bats captured.

In this study, we considered our sampling effort by nights as satisfactory because it permitted us to reach adequate levels of completeness for each bat assemblage, by vegetation type and season.

So, although by increasing the number of sampling nights it is generally possible to record more bat species than by just increasing the number of hours of nocturnal sampling Godoy et al. This pattern that has been found at other sites on the Yucatan Peninsula Montiel et al. Nevertheless, in other Neotropical sites different results have been reported. In Bolivia, Aguirre et al. Similar responses can be found if we considerer variables other than species richness and composition.

This may be explained by the focus on the family Phyllostomidae, by the heterogeneity of the study area, and by the composition and phenology of the local flora. We found that bat abundance was higher during the rainy season, mainly in STF.

This may be due to the increase in primary productivity during this season. However, to address whether this is a consistent pattern among all guilds it would be necessary to use an ad hoc analysis.

Importance of the analyses at different spatial and temporal scales Time and space make up two of the main niche dimensions Pianka, Therefore, analyzing temporal and spatial species turnover is key to understanding biodiversity patterns. However, bats can respond differentially at fine and coarse scales in these dimensions Bernard, ; Aguirre et al. So, including a variety of spatial and temporal scales is important to assess bat diversity patterns properly, as noted for other biological groups Tylianakis et al.

We found that each dimension has a specific scale of greater importance for explaining total species richness, and this may be an important point of departure for designing proper sampling protocols for bat assemblages. On the other hand, the high contribution of coarse temporal scales demonstrates that it is necessary to sample at different times, mainly during several nights, in order to get a better representation of bat assemblages.

We thank E. Estrella, D. We are grateful to all of the park rangers of the reserves, to C. MacSwiney for equipment for the field work and to S. Sosa for their comments on earlier versions of this manuscript. Bianca Delfosse translated the article from the original in Spanish. Lens, R. Matthysen, Consistency and variation in the bat assemblages inhabiting two forest islands within a Neotropical savanna in Bolivia. Journal of Tropical Ecology, Stoner, M. Composition, structure and diversity of phyllostomid bat assemblages in different successional stages of a tropical dry forest.

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Deciduous tropical forest Semideciduous tropical forest Species Total Dry Rainy Dry Rainy Subtotal Subtotal Season Season Season Season Micronycteris microtis 3 3 5 5 10 13 Diphylla ecaudata 4 4 2 2 6 Desmodus rotundus 14 41 55 1 1 56 Mimon cozumelae 1 1 1 Glossophaga soricina 32 21 53 72 28 Carollia sowelli 7 5 12 4 13 17 29 Carollia perspicillata 1 1 3 46 49 50 Sturnira lilium 10 8 18 20 42 62 80 Chiroderma villosum 1 3 4 4 Artibeus intermedius 8 6 14 27 45 72 86 Artibeus jamaicensis 59 92 57 Artibeus lituratus 1 1 1 17 18 19 Dermanura phaeotis 7 10 17 8 26 34 51 Centurio senex 1 3 4 5 30 35 39 Species richness 11 11 13 12 11 13 14 Total number of individuals Chao 1 14 11 13 15 11 13 14 Chao 2 Hierarchical model for the additive partitioning of Phyllostomid bat diversity at spatial and temporal dimensions.

Number of bats recorded by capture method and sampling period in the state of Yucatan, Mexico. It assumes that some species and functional traits may be more important than others in the structuring of assemblages. The wide variety of trophic guilds in Neotropical bats makes them a useful group for analyzing the way in which functional diversity is related to species richness. We studied three assemblages of tropical bats in central and southern Mexico, using the total branch length of a functional dendrogram as a measure of functional diversity.

For all three assemblages there was a strong correlation between functional diversity and species richness, although no consistent pattern was detected for the relationships between functional diversity, trophic guild richness, and species richness.

Our results show that the bat assemblages analyzed do not exhibit functional redundancy. Assemblage processes can vary with geographic scale, with biogeographic factors the most important at the regional level and the processes of competition, ecological niche differentiation and stochastic events most important at the local level Willig and Moulton ; Stevens et al.

Recently, the use of functional diversity FD has received special attention in community ecology. FD assumes that functional traits exist, i. Given that, ecosystem processes ultimately result from the actions of organisms, FD has the potential to link morphological, physiological, and phenological variation at the individual level to ecosystem processes and patterns Petchey et al. Understanding the spatial and temporal scales of FD and its causes is important given that the distribution of functional traits could affect different assemblage processes Petchey et al.

If local assemblages were comprised of random sets of species, their FD would tend to be randomly distributed, while a nonrandom distribution of the functional traits of species could indicate that ecological processes such as niche partitioning, limiting similarity and environmental filters are structuring local assemblages. Although theoretically species richness per se has little explanatory power with regard to FD because it ignores the similarities and differences in functional traits Hooper et al.

Functionally, high species richness and diversity are important for maintaining the stability of ecosystems because they increase resiliency when disturbance occurs Bellwood et al.

A functional group represents a set of species with a similar effect on a specific ecosystem process or a similar response to environmental condition Hooper et al. As such, this group would be said to exhibit functional redundancy, i.

In bats, functional groups have been based on trophic guilds, which have traditionally been established based on taxonomic levels Simmons and Voss or a few traits of feeding and habitat use Kalko In this study, because of their usefulness as bioindicators Jones et al.

If assemblages were randomly assembled, we would expect redundancy to be high because species would be functionally equivalent and thus changes in species richness would have no relationship with FD. In contrast, if redundancy is low we might think that there are ecological factors, such as niche partitioning, that structure the assemblages because the changes in richness would have a significant positive correlation with FD Walker Their main characteristics are given in Table 4.

Since all case studies were done using mist nets, this analysis is limited to captures of species in the Phyllostomidae and Mormoopidae families; i. Although sampling effort was different at each site, inventory completeness was evaluated for each site —the proportion of the maximum number of species predicted by richness estimators as represented by observed richness.

For all three assemblages, inventories were found to be satisfactory Table 4. Analysis of functional diversity Several techniques have been developed to quantify FD see recent reviews in Petchey et al.

For this study, we selected the method proposed by Petchey and Gaston because it allows FD to be quantified in a way similar to that used to quantify phylogenetic diversity: FD is the total length of the branches of a functional dendrogram.

This analysis is very useful as a measure of the extent of trait complementarity among species, of diversity across several scales simultaneously and a continuous measure of the natural variation among species Petchey and Gaston As such, it is an aggregate of the measures of diversity caused by species richness, the number of functional groups, community composition and species identity.

We used the following characteristics of the species to generate the trait matrices: 1 size forearm, weight, wingspan and total length ; 2 habitat use type of flight and vertical stratification ; 3 feeding dental formula, diet, foraging mode ; 4 temporal activity Table 4.

For the assemblages from Yucatan and Oaxaca we used field data for size while for the Veracruz assemblage we obtained this information from the specialized literature Ceballos and Oliva To test if there is an effect of the traits, we repeated the analysis using different combinations of only three out of the four types of traits considered.

Functional group richness is the number of functional groups, which in this study was the number of trophic guilds based on the classification of Simmons and Voss : frugivores, gleaning animalivores, nectarivores and sanguivores. To identify those traits that best explain the formation of clusters in each study case, we carried out a principal components analysis using UPGMA as a measure of clustering and used all the traits included in the matrix McGarigal et al.

We ran these analyses on the program MVSP, version 3. Important functional traits The variables that best explain species clusters were different for each bat assemblage Table 4. For the Yucatan bats, the main traits related to species clustering were those associated with habitat use understory and subcanopy captures and size wingspan. In the New World, the greatest functional diversity across an extensive environmental gradient for bats occurs where the Nearctic and Neotropical biogeographic regions intersect owing to the rapid change in species composition and the more dynamic nature of functional diversity in temperate zones Stevens et al.

This study, however, demonstrates that there are regional landscapes in the Neotropics where FD is dynamic owing to variations in its spatial makeup and that, as occurs along latitudinal gradients; the changes in FD are mainly a consequence of a decrease in the number of phyllostomids, the most diverse family of bats from a functional perspective Gardner ; Kalko In the Yucatan bat assemblage, differences in species richness and FD are influenced by a gradient in precipitation and production from the northeast towards the southeast of the peninsula Barber et al.

In Veracruz, land use is an important factor affecting bat richness at each site and therefore affects FD Moreno and Halffter There is a gradient in richness from the best-preserved natural site tropical subdeciduous forest and the different systems created by human activities.

Finally, in Oaxaca, although the conditions of the physical environment temperature, humidity and light intensity and habitat conditions vegetation type do not strongly affect species distribution per se, the assemblages are not randomly structured. Rather, they depend on ecological factors such as food availability in each habitat.

Something that would improve the analysis and allow for a better understanding of the processes that link individuals to ecosystems would be the inclusion of variability between individuals since this is important even when there is no relationship between species richness and FD Cianciaruso et al.

Basing the analysis on the dominant species would be a useful approach for evaluating the effects of certain species, and not total richness, on ecosystems since in some cases functional identity could have a greater effect on ecosystem processes than FD does Mokany et al.

Functional traits The different functional traits that were important in the assemblages analyzed reflect the advantage conferred by including morphological, ecological and biological data when defining functional groups. This variable should be included in sampling designs in order to better represent and analyze assemblages. This was most evident in the Veracruz assemblage where traits of this type, all obtained from the literature, were more important than habitat use and feeding traits.

Activity time was important in Oaxaca bat assemblages indicating that there might be a temporal niche partition that plays some role in assemblage structure, perhaps by reducing intra- Thies et al. It is important to remember that there might be other traits, not analyzed here, that would allow for a better functional classification of the bat assemblages. These might include morphological cranial measurements Pedersen or type of echolocation sound Siemers and Schnitzler , and a better analysis should likely include at least these measures in addition to those evaluated in this study.

However, we found consistent results in all analysis including the four traits and the different combinations of only three of these, which suggests that relationships between FD, species richness and functional richness may not be dependent on the type of traits considered.

Redundancy and functional groups The relationship detected between species richness and FD for all three assemblages indicates that there is no redundancy because a decrease in the number of species causes significant changes in FD. This could be a result of the low total richness of the bat assemblages analyzed relative to other biological groups such as birds and fish, which would mask the effects of subtle changes in richness on FD.

However, in both analyses of assemblages with similar richness see Petchey and Gaston and in studies that analyze a larger number of species, there are reports of low functional redundancy Micheli and Halpern ; Petchey et al.

Therefore, for our three groups of bats, FD is a more sensitive measure than the number of trophic guilds is by itself. In all three groups, the most poorly represented functional groups, with respect to both richness and abundance, were the secondary consumers insectivores and carnivores , while the best represented group was the frugivores. For frugivores species, the greater availability of fruit at each of the study sites allowed for higher species richness within this functional group.

There may, however, be situations in which a particular assemblage or functional group is rich in species without any tendency in the FD to increase de Bello et al. In conclusion, the results do not support the idea that random processes are the main force in structuring the bat assemblages analyzed since variations in species richness cause significant changes in FD.

Therefore, there are local and regional ecological processes that affect assemblage composition. To establish patterns for the relationship between biodiversity and FD, these analyses should be done in other regions and with other groups of organisms, and take into account factors like species interactions, assemblage behavior on different temporal scales, and the effects of global processes such as climate change.

We are grateful to O. Petchey for providing the script for analyzing functional diversity. Sosa kindly commented on previous versions of the manuscript. JMPC thanks D. Bat and rodent diversity in a fragmented landscape on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico. Tropical Conservation Science. Confronting the coral reef crisis: supporting biodiversity, functional groups, and resilience.

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A functional guide to functional diversity measures. Log in with Facebook Log in with Google. Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account?

Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. A short summary of this paper. Estimadores de la riqueza de especies. Los estimadores es- al. Es necesario comprender correcta- munidad Chao et al. Utilizando trabajos grandes que la muestreada.

Las da de se desarrollaron estimadores ahora muy escalas de espacio y tiempo que afectan a la riqueza conocidos. Por ejemplo, Chao y Lee y Chao son distintas para diferentes taxones y ambientes, et al.

Por otro ciones ambientales y de muestreo particulares. Con todo lo anterior, se entiende que la ri- de especies en comunidades determinadas. Recuadro 7. El problema de medir la abundancia en animales.

Colwell, Recientemente esto puede Hortal et al. Chao et al. Vokoun, En obtener del programa EstimateS Colwell, , este sentido, Reese et al. Cabe destacar que el va- Figura 7. Debido a esto se ha propuesto 0.

Es decir, que la pen- datos de incidencia. Tomando el ejemplo anterior para explicar el Otros estimadores, incluyendo cinco ordenes concepto de cobertura de muestra, una muestra con de Jackknife, se pueden calcular en el programa 0. La completitud de muestra en este ejemplo indi- Mejora de estimadores.

Como se observa, es necesario comprender al. Statistics and Opera- sity. Ecology Letters Ecology Sufficient sampling for asymptotic mini- mum species richness estimators. Estimating species richness: Sensitivity to sample coverage and insensitivity to spatial Chao A, Jost L Coverage-based rarefaction patterns. Journal of the American Statistical Association Geological Survey prediction and diversity estimation in R. Methods in ging with unequal failure rates.

Biometrika Ecology and Evolution Chao A Nonparametric estimation of the Chiarucci A Estimating species richness: number of classes in a population.

Scandina- still a long way off!